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<title>Astroparticle physics</title>

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<span id="openzim-page-title" class="mw-page-title-main"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Astroparticle physics</span></span>

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the scientific journal, see <a href="Astroparticle_Physics_(journal)" title="Astroparticle Physics (journal)"><i>Astroparticle Physics</i> (journal)</a>.</div>

<p><b>Astroparticle physics</b>, also called <b>particle astrophysics</b>, is a <a href="Branch" title="Branch">branch</a> of <a href="Particle_physics" title="Particle physics">particle physics</a> that studies elementary particles of <a href="Astrophysics" title="Astrophysics">astrophysical</a> origin and their relation to <a href="Astrophysics" title="Astrophysics">astrophysics</a> and <a href="Cosmology" title="Cosmology">cosmology</a>. It is a relatively new field of research emerging at the intersection of particle physics, <a href="Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a>, astrophysics, <a href="Particle_detector" title="Particle detector">detector physics</a>, <a href="Theory_of_relativity" title="Theory of relativity">relativity</a>, <a href="Solid_state_physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Solid state physics">solid state physics</a>, and <a href="Cosmology" title="Cosmology">cosmology</a>. Partly motivated by the discovery of <a href="Neutrino_oscillation" title="Neutrino oscillation">neutrino oscillation</a>, the field has undergone rapid development, both theoretically and experimentally, since the early 2000s.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div>

<p>The field of astroparticle physics is evolved out of optical astronomy. With the growth of detector technology came the more mature astrophysics, which involved multiple physics subtopics, such as <a href="Mechanics" title="Mechanics">mechanics</a>, <a href="Electrodynamics" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrodynamics">electrodynamics</a>, <a href="Thermodynamics" title="Thermodynamics">thermodynamics</a>, <a href="Plasma_physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Plasma physics">plasma physics</a>, <a href="Nuclear_physics" title="Nuclear physics">nuclear physics</a>, relativity, and <a href="Particle_physics" title="Particle physics">particle physics</a>. Particle physicists found astrophysics necessary due to difficulty in producing particles with comparable energy to those found in space. For example, the cosmic ray spectrum contains particles with energies as high as 10<sup>20</sup> <a href="Electronvolt" title="Electronvolt">eV</a>, where a proton–proton collision at the <a href="Large_Hadron_Collider" title="Large Hadron Collider">Large Hadron Collider</a> occurs at an energy of ~10<sup>12</sup> eV.

</p><p>The field can be said to have begun in <a href="1910" title="1910">1910</a>, when a <a href="Germany" title="Germany">German</a> physicist named <a href="Theodor_Wulf" title="Theodor Wulf">Theodor Wulf</a> measured the <a href="Ionization" title="Ionization">ionization</a> in the air, an indicator of gamma radiation, at the bottom and top of the <a href="Eiffel_Tower" title="Eiffel Tower">Eiffel Tower</a>. He found that there was far more ionization at the top than what was expected if only terrestrial sources were attributed for this radiation.<sup id="cite_ref-Lon1981_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lon1981-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The Austrian physicist <a href="Victor_Francis_Hess" class="mw-redirect" title="Victor Francis Hess">Victor Francis Hess</a> hypothesized that some of the ionization was caused by radiation from the sky. In order to defend this hypothesis, Hess designed instruments capable of operating at high altitudes and performed observations on ionization up to an altitude of 5.3 km. From 1911 to 1913, Hess made ten flights to meticulously measure ionization levels. Through prior calculations, he did not expect there to be any ionization above an altitude of 500 m if terrestrial sources were the sole cause of radiation. His measurements however, revealed that although the ionization levels initially decreased with altitude, they began to sharply rise at some point. At the peaks of his flights, he found that the ionization levels were much greater than at the surface. Hess was then able to conclude that "a radiation of very high penetrating power enters our atmosphere from above". Furthermore, one of Hess's flights was during a near-total eclipse of the Sun. Since he did not observe a dip in ionization levels, Hess reasoned that the source had to be further away in space. For this discovery, Hess was one of the people awarded the <a href="Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Nobel Prize in Physics">Nobel Prize in Physics</a> in 1936. In 1925, <a href="Robert_Millikan" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Millikan">Robert Millikan</a> confirmed Hess's findings and subsequently coined the term '<a href="Cosmic_rays" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmic rays">cosmic rays</a>'.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Many physicists knowledgeable about the origins of the field of astroparticle physics prefer to attribute this 'discovery' of cosmic rays by Hess as the starting point for the field.<sup id="cite_ref-Cirkel-Bartelt_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cirkel-Bartelt-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Topics_of_research">Topics of research</h2></div>

<p>While it may be difficult to decide on a standard 'textbook' description of the field of astroparticle physics, the field can be characterized by the topics of research that are actively being pursued. The journal <i><a href="Astroparticle_Physics_(journal)" title="Astroparticle Physics (journal)">Astroparticle Physics</a></i> accepts papers that are focused on new developments in the following areas:<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<ul><li>High-energy cosmic-ray physics and <a href="Astrophysics" title="Astrophysics">astrophysics</a>;</li>

<li>Particle cosmology;</li>

<li>Particle astrophysics;</li>

<li>Related astrophysics: <a href="Supernova" title="Supernova">supernova</a>, <a href="Active_galactic_nuclei" class="mw-redirect" title="Active galactic nuclei">active galactic nuclei</a>, cosmic abundances, <a href="Dark_matter" title="Dark matter">dark matter</a> etc.;</li>

<li>High-energy, VHE and UHE gamma-ray astronomy;</li>

<li>High- and low-energy neutrino astronomy;</li>

<li>Instrumentation and detector developments related to the above-mentioned fields.</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Open_questions">Open questions</h3></div>

<p>One main task for the future of the field is simply to thoroughly define itself beyond working definitions and clearly differentiate itself from astrophysics and other related topics.<sup id="cite_ref-Cirkel-Bartelt_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cirkel-Bartelt-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Current unsolved problems for the field of astroparticle physics include characterization of <a href="Dark_matter" title="Dark matter">dark matter</a> and <a href="Dark_energy" title="Dark energy">dark energy</a>. Observations of the orbital velocities of stars in the <a href="Milky_Way" title="Milky Way">Milky Way</a> and other galaxies starting with <a href="Walter_Baade" title="Walter Baade">Walter Baade</a> and <a href="Fritz_Zwicky" title="Fritz Zwicky">Fritz Zwicky</a> in the 1930s, along with observed velocities of galaxies in galactic clusters, found motion far exceeding the energy density of the visible matter needed to account for their dynamics. Since the early nineties some candidates have been found to partially explain some of the missing dark matter, but they are nowhere near sufficient to offer a full explanation. The finding of an accelerating universe suggests that a large part of the missing dark matter is stored as dark energy in a dynamical vacuum.<sup id="cite_ref-Astroparticle_Physics_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Astroparticle_Physics-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Another question for astroparticle physicists is why is there so much more matter than antimatter in the universe today. <a href="Baryogenesis" title="Baryogenesis">Baryogenesis</a> is the term for the hypothetical processes that produced the unequal numbers of baryons and antibaryons in the early universe, which is why the universe is made of matter today, and not antimatter.<sup id="cite_ref-Astroparticle_Physics_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Astroparticle_Physics-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Experimental_facilities">Experimental facilities</h2></div>

<p>The rapid development of this field has led to the design of new types of infrastructure. In underground laboratories or with specially designed telescopes, antennas and satellite experiments, astroparticle physicists employ new detection methods to observe a wide range of cosmic particles including neutrinos, gamma rays and cosmic rays at the highest energies. They are also searching for <a href="Dark_matter" title="Dark matter">dark matter</a> and <a href="Gravitational_waves" class="mw-redirect" title="Gravitational waves">gravitational waves</a>. Experimental particle physicists are limited by the technology of their terrestrial accelerators, which are only able to produce a small fraction of the energies found in nature.

</p><p>The following is an incomplete list of laboratories and experiments in astroparticle physics.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Underground_laboratories">Underground laboratories</h3></div>

<p>These facilities are located deep underground, to shield very sensitive experiments from <a href="Cosmic_rays" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmic rays">cosmic rays</a> that would otherwise preclude the observation of very rare phenomena.

</p>

<ul><li><a href="China_Jinping_Underground_Laboratory" title="China Jinping Underground Laboratory">China Jinping Underground Laboratory</a> is a deep underground laboratory in the <a href="Jinping_Mountains" title="Jinping Mountains">Jinping Mountains</a> of <a href="Sichuan" title="Sichuan">Sichuan</a>, China.</li>

<li><a href="Kamioka_Observatory" title="Kamioka Observatory">Kamioka Observatory</a> is a neutrino and gravitational waves laboratory located underground in the Mozumi Mine near the <a href="Kamioka" class="mw-redirect" title="Kamioka">Kamioka</a> section of the city of Hida in Gifu Prefecture, Japan. It is the site of the <a href="Super-Kamiokande" title="Super-Kamiokande">Super-Kamiokande</a> experiment.</li>

<li><a href="Laboratori_Nazionali_del_Gran_Sasso" title="Laboratori Nazionali del Gran Sasso">Laboratori Nazionali del Gran Sasso</a> (LNGS) is a laboratory that hosts experiments requiring a low-background environment. Its experimental halls are located within the <a href="Gran_Sasso" class="mw-redirect" title="Gran Sasso">Gran Sasso</a> mountain, near <a href="L'Aquila" title="L'Aquila">L'Aquila</a> (Italy).</li>

<li><a href="SNOLAB" title="SNOLAB">SNOLAB</a> is located 2 km underground in an active mine, in <a href="Greater_Sudbury" title="Greater Sudbury">Greater Sudbury</a> (Canada). Expanded from the original <a href="Sudbury_Neutrino_Observatory" title="Sudbury Neutrino Observatory">Sudbury Neutrino Observatory</a>, the entire underground laboratory is operated as a <a href="Cleanroom" title="Cleanroom">cleanroom</a>, hosting experiments in neutrino physics and dark matter searches.</li>

<li><a href="Sanford_Underground_Research_Facility" title="Sanford Underground Research Facility">Sanford Underground Research Facility</a> (SURF) located in <a href="Lead%2C_South_Dakota" title="Lead, South Dakota">Lead, South Dakota</a> hosts multiple experiments and is funded in part by the <a href="United_States_Department_of_Energy" title="United States Department of Energy">United States Department of Energy</a>.</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Neutrino_detectors">Neutrino detectors</h3></div>

<p>Very large <a href="Neutrino_detectors" class="mw-redirect" title="Neutrino detectors">neutrino detectors</a> are required to record the extremely rare interactions of neutrinos with atomic matter.

</p>

<ul><li><a href="IceCube" class="mw-redirect" title="IceCube">IceCube</a> (<a href="Antarctica" title="Antarctica">Antarctica</a>). The largest particle detector in the world, was completed in December 2010. The purpose of the detector is to investigate high energy neutrinos, search for dark matter, observe supernovae explosions, and search for exotic particles such as magnetic monopoles.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li><a href="ANTARES_(telescope)" title="ANTARES (telescope)">ANTARES</a> (<a href="Toulon" title="Toulon">Toulon</a>, <a href="France" title="France">France</a>). A Neutrino detector 2.5 km under the Mediterranean Sea off the coast of Toulon, France. Designed to locate and observe neutrino flux in the direction of the southern hemisphere.</li>

<li><a href="NESTOR_Project" title="NESTOR Project">NESTOR Project</a> (<a href="Pylos" title="Pylos">Pylos</a>, <a href="Greece" title="Greece">Greece</a>). The target of the international collaboration is the deployment of a neutrino telescope on the sea floor off of Pylos, Greece.</li>

<li><a href="BOREXINO" class="mw-redirect" title="BOREXINO">BOREXINO</a>, a real-time detector, installed at <a href="LNGS" class="mw-redirect" title="LNGS">LNGS</a>, designed to detect neutrinos from the <a href="Sun" title="Sun">Sun</a> with an organic liquid <a href="Scintillator" title="Scintillator">scintillator</a> target.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dark_matter_detectors">Dark matter detectors</h3></div>

<p>Experiments are dedicated to the direct detection of <a href="Dark_matter" title="Dark matter">dark matter</a> interactions with the detector target material.

</p>

<ul><li><a href="LZ_experiment" title="LZ experiment">LZ experiment</a> is a dark matter direct detection experiment hoping to observe <a href="Weakly_interacting_massive_particles" class="mw-redirect" title="Weakly interacting massive particles">weakly interacting massive particles</a> (WIMPs) scatters on xenon nuclei. The experiment is located at the <a href="Sanford_Underground_Research_Facility" title="Sanford Underground Research Facility">Sanford Underground Research Facility</a> (SURF) in South Dakota, and is managed by the <a href="United_States_Department_of_Energy" title="United States Department of Energy">United States Department of Energy</a>'s <a href="Lawrence_Berkeley_National_Lab" class="mw-redirect" title="Lawrence Berkeley National Lab">Lawrence Berkeley National Lab</a>.</li>

<li>XENONnT, the upgrade of <a href="XENON1T" class="mw-redirect" title="XENON1T">XENON1T</a>, is a dark matter direct search experiment located at <a href="LNGS" class="mw-redirect" title="LNGS">LNGS</a> and is expected to be sensitive to <a href="WIMPs" class="mw-redirect" title="WIMPs">WIMPs</a> with spin-independent cross section of 10<sup>−48</sup> cm<sup>2</sup>.</li>

<li>The Global Argon Dark Matter Collaboration operates a series of liquid argon experiments: <a href="DarkSide_(dark_matter_experiment)" title="DarkSide (dark matter experiment)">DarkSide-50</a> at <a href="LNGS" class="mw-redirect" title="LNGS">LNGS</a>, <a href="DEAP-3600" class="mw-redirect" title="DEAP-3600">DEAP-3600</a> at <a href="SNOLAB" title="SNOLAB">SNOLAB</a>, and the upcoming <a href="DarkSide_(dark_matter_experiment)" title="DarkSide (dark matter experiment)">DarkSide-20k</a> detector at <a href="LNGS" class="mw-redirect" title="LNGS">LNGS</a>. These experiments look for <a href="WIMPs" class="mw-redirect" title="WIMPs">WIMPs</a> and heavier dark matter particle candidates.</li>

<li>The <a href="Cryogenic_Dark_Matter_Search" title="Cryogenic Dark Matter Search">Cryogenic Dark Matter Search</a> (CDMS) is a series of experiments searching for <a href="WIMPs" class="mw-redirect" title="WIMPs">WIMPs</a> interactions with semiconductor detectors at <a href="Millikelvin" class="mw-redirect" title="Millikelvin">millikelvin</a> temperatures.</li>

<li>The <a href="CERN_Axion_Solar_Telescope" title="CERN Axion Solar Telescope">CERN Axion Solar Telescope</a> (CERN, Switzerland) searches for axions originating from the Sun.</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cosmic_ray_observatories">Cosmic ray observatories</h3></div>

<p>Interested in high-energy cosmic ray detection are:

</p>

<ul><li><a href="Pierre_Auger_Observatory" title="Pierre Auger Observatory">Pierre Auger Observatory</a> (<a href="Malarg%C3%BCe" title="Malargüe">Malargüe</a>, <a href="Argentina" title="Argentina">Argentina</a>) detects and investigates high energy cosmic rays using two techniques. One is to study the particles interactions with water placed in surface detector tanks. The other technique is to track the development of air showers through observation of ultraviolet light emitted high in the Earth's atmosphere.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li><a href="Telescope_Array_Project" title="Telescope Array Project">Telescope Array Project</a> (<a href="Delta%2C_Utah" title="Delta, Utah">Delta, Utah</a>), an experiment for the detection of ultra high energy cosmic rays (UHECRs) using a ground array and fluorescence techniques in the desert of west Utah.</li></ul>

<ul><li><i><a href="Astroparticle_Physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Astroparticle Physics">Astroparticle Physics</a></i> (journal)</li>

<li><a href="Urca_process" title="Urca process">Urca process</a></li>

<li><a href="Unsolved_problems_in_physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Unsolved problems in physics">Unsolved problems in physics</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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</style><cite id="CITEREFDe_AngelisPimenta2018" class="citation book cs1">De Angelis, Alessandro; Pimenta, Mario (2018). <i>Introduction to particle and astroparticle physics (multimessenger astronomy and its particle physics foundations)</i>. Springer. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-319-78181-5">10.1007/978-3-319-78181-5</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-3-319-78181-5</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Lon1981-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Lon1981_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFLongair1981" class="citation book cs1">Longair, M. S. (1981). <i>High energy astrophysics</i>. Cambridge, UK: <a href="Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. p. 11. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-521-23513-6</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aps.org/publications/apsnews/201004/physicshistory.cfm">"April 17, 1912: Victor Hess's balloon flight during total eclipse to measure cosmic rays"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-09-18</span></span>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-Cirkel-Bartelt-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cirkel-Bartelt_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cirkel-Bartelt_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFCirkel-Bartelt2008" class="citation journal cs1">Cirkel-Bartelt, Vanessa (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.livingreviews.org/lrr-2008-2">"History of Astroparticle Physics and its Components"</a>. <i><a href="Living_Reviews_in_Relativity" title="Living Reviews in Relativity">Living Reviews in Relativity</a></i>. <b>11</b> (2): 7. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008LRR....11....7F">2008LRR....11....7F</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.12942%2Flrr-2008-7">10.12942/lrr-2008-7</a></span>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5256108">5256108</a></span>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28179823">28179823</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 January</span> 2013</span>.</cite></span>

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<cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.journals.elsevier.com/astroparticle-physics/"><i>Astroparticle Physics</i></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-09-18</span></span>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-Astroparticle_Physics-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Astroparticle_Physics_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Astroparticle_Physics_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFGrupen2005" class="citation book cs1">Grupen, Claus (2005). <i>Astroparticle Physics</i>. Springer. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-3-540-25312-9</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130123133442/http://www.desy.de/research/facilities/icecube/index_eng.html">"IceCube - Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron DESY"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.desy.de/research/facilities/icecube/index_eng.html">the original</a> on 2013-01-23<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-01-24</span></span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://borex.lngs.infn.it">http://borex.lngs.infn.it</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120723055338/http://borex.lngs.infn.it/">Archived</a> 2012-07-23 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130506032005/http://www.auger.org/observatory/">"Home"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.auger.org/observatory/">the original</a> on 2013-05-06<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-04-29</span></span>.</cite></span>

</li>

</ol></div></div>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFPerkins2009" class="citation book cs1">Perkins, D.H. (2009). <i>Particle Astrophysics</i> (2nd ed.). <a href="Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-19-954546-9</bdi>.</cite></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

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<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Astroparticle_physics" class="extiw external" title="commons:Category:Astroparticle physics">Astroparticle physics</a></span>.</div></div>

</div>

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141116032423/http://www.aspera-eu.org/">Aspera European network portal</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160314152446/http://www.astroparticle.org/">www.astroparticle.org: all about astroparticle physics...</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071011085551/http://info-aspera.web.cern.ch/info-ASPERA/">Aspera news</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://viavca.in2p3.fr/">Virtual Institute of Astroparticle Physics</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hap-astroparticle.org/">Helmholtz Alliance for Astroparticle Physics</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.astro.ucla.edu/~stacee/astroparticleright.html">UCLA Astro-Particle Physics</a> at <a href="UCLA" class="mw-redirect" title="UCLA">UCLA</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iop.org/EJ/jcap">Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.astrodeeltjesfysica.nl/">Astroparticle Physics in the Netherlands</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.astroparticles.es/">Astroparticle and High Energy Physics</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090712005348/http://www.universe.nasa.gov/astroparticles/">ASD: Astroparticle Physics Laboratory</a> at <a href="NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sites.google.com/view/physedu/teaching-astroparticle-physics">Teaching Astroparticle Physics</a></li></ul>

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</style><div id="Astronomy559" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Astronomy" title="Astronomy">Astronomy</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div>

<ul><li><a href="Outline_of_astronomy" title="Outline of astronomy">Outline</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_astronomy" title="History of astronomy">History</a>

<ul><li><a href="Timeline_of_astronomy" title="Timeline of astronomy">Timeline</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Astronomer" title="Astronomer">Astronomer</a></li>

<li><a href="Astronomical_symbols" title="Astronomical symbols">Astronomical symbols</a></li>

<li><a href="Astronomical_object" title="Astronomical object">Astronomical object</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_astronomy" title="Glossary of astronomy">Glossary</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_topics_in_space" title="List of topics in space">... in space</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">Astronomy by</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;">Manner</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Amateur_astronomy" title="Amateur astronomy">Amateur</a></li>

<li><a href="Observational_astronomy" title="Observational astronomy">Observational</a></li>

<li><a href="Sidewalk_astronomy" title="Sidewalk astronomy">Sidewalk</a></li>

<li><a href="Space_telescope" title="Space telescope">Space telescope</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;">Celestial subject</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Galactic_astronomy" title="Galactic astronomy">Galactic</a> / <a href="Extragalactic_astronomy" title="Extragalactic astronomy">Extragalactic</a></li>

<li><a href="Solar_System" title="Solar System">Local system</a>

<ul><li><a href="Sun" title="Sun">Solar</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;">EM methods</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Radio_astronomy" title="Radio astronomy">Radio</a></li>

<li><a href="Submillimetre_astronomy" title="Submillimetre astronomy">Submillimetre</a></li>

<li><a href="Infrared_astronomy" title="Infrared astronomy">Infrared</a> (<span style="font-size: 85%;"><a href="Far-infrared_astronomy" title="Far-infrared astronomy">Far-infrared</a></span>)</li>

<li><a href="Visible-light_astronomy" title="Visible-light astronomy">Visible-light <span style="font-size: 85%;">(optical)</span></a></li>

<li><a href="Ultraviolet_astronomy" title="Ultraviolet astronomy">Ultraviolet</a></li>

<ul><li><a href="History_of_X-ray_astronomy" title="History of X-ray astronomy">History</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Gamma-ray_astronomy" title="Gamma-ray astronomy">Gamma-ray</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;">Other methods</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Neutrino_astronomy" title="Neutrino astronomy">Neutrino</a></li>

<li><a href="Cosmic_ray_astronomy" title="Cosmic ray astronomy">Cosmic rays</a></li>

<li><a href="Gravitational-wave_astronomy" title="Gravitational-wave astronomy">Gravitational radiation</a></li>

<li><a href="High-energy_astronomy" title="High-energy astronomy">High-energy</a></li>

<li><a href="Radar_astronomy" title="Radar astronomy">Radar</a></li>

<li><a href="Spherical_astronomy" title="Spherical astronomy">Spherical</a></li>

<li><a href="Multi-messenger_astronomy" title="Multi-messenger astronomy">Multi-messenger</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;"><a href="Cultural_astronomy" title="Cultural astronomy">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Australian_Aboriginal_astronomy" title="Australian Aboriginal astronomy">Australian Aboriginal</a></li>

<li><a href="Babylonian_astronomy" title="Babylonian astronomy">Babylonian</a></li>

<li><a href="Chinese_astronomy" title="Chinese astronomy">Chinese</a></li>

<li><a href="Egyptian_astronomy" title="Egyptian astronomy">Egyptian</a></li>

<li><a href="Ancient_Greek_astronomy" title="Ancient Greek astronomy">Greek</a></li>

<li><a href="Hebrew_astronomy" title="Hebrew astronomy">Hebrew</a></li>

<li><a href="Indian_astronomy" title="Indian astronomy">Indian</a></li>

<li><a href="Inuit_astronomy" title="Inuit astronomy">Inuit</a></li>

<li><a href="Astronomy_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world">Medieval Islamic</a></li>

<li><a href="Persian_astronomy" title="Persian astronomy">Persian</a></li>

<li><a href="Astronomy_in_Serbia" title="Astronomy in Serbia">Serbian</a>

<li><a href="Tibetan_astronomy" title="Tibetan astronomy">Tibetan</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="Optical_telescope" title="Optical telescope">Optical<br>telescopes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li>Category</li>

<li><a href="Extremely_large_telescope" title="Extremely large telescope">Extremely large telescope</a></li>

<li><a href="Extremely_Large_Telescope" title="Extremely Large Telescope">Extremely Large Telescope</a></li>

<li><a href="Gran_Telescopio_Canarias" title="Gran Telescopio Canarias">Gran Telescopio Canarias</a></li>

<li><a href="Hale_Telescope" title="Hale Telescope">Hale Telescope</a></li>

<li><a href="Hubble_Space_Telescope" title="Hubble Space Telescope">Hubble Space Telescope</a></li>

<li><a href="W._M._Keck_Observatory" title="W. M. Keck Observatory">Keck Observatory</a></li>

<li><a href="Large_Binocular_Telescope" title="Large Binocular Telescope">Large Binocular Telescope</a></li>

<li><a href="Southern_African_Large_Telescope" title="Southern African Large Telescope">Southern African Large Telescope</a></li>

<li><a href="Very_Large_Telescope" title="Very Large Telescope">Very Large Telescope</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Archaeoastronomy" title="Archaeoastronomy">Archaeoastronomy</a></li>

<li><a href="Astrobiology" title="Astrobiology">Astrobiology</a></li>

<li><a href="Astrochemistry" title="Astrochemistry">Astrochemistry</a></li>

<li><a href="Astroinformatics" title="Astroinformatics">Astroinformatics</a></li>

<li><a href="Astrology_and_astronomy" title="Astrology and astronomy">Astrology and astronomy</a></li>

<li><a href="Astrometry" title="Astrometry">Astrometry</a></li>

<li><i><a href="Astronomers_Monument" title="Astronomers Monument">Astronomers Monument</a></i></li>

<li><a href="Astrophysics" title="Astrophysics">Astrophysics</a></li>

<li><a href="Astrotourism" title="Astrotourism">Astrotourism</a></li>

<li><a href="Binoculars" title="Binoculars">Binoculars</a></li>

<li><a href="Constellation" title="Constellation">Constellation</a>

<li><a href="Cosmogony" title="Cosmogony">Cosmogony</a></li>

<li><a href="Photometry_(astronomy)" title="Photometry (astronomy)">Photometry</a></li>

<li><a href="Planetarium" title="Planetarium">Planetarium</a></li>

<li><a href="Planetary_geology" title="Planetary geology">Planetary geology</a></li>

<li><a href="Physical_cosmology" title="Physical cosmology">Physical cosmology</a></li>

<li><a href="Quantum_cosmology" title="Quantum cosmology">Quantum cosmology</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_astronomers" title="List of astronomers">List of astronomers</a>

<ul><li><a href="List_of_French_astronomers" title="List of French astronomers">French</a></li>

<li><a href="Astronomy_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world#Notable_astronomers" title="Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world">Medieval Islamic</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_Russian_astronomers_and_astrophysicists" title="List of Russian astronomers and astrophysicists">Russian</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_women_astronomers" title="List of women astronomers">Women</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Telescope" title="Telescope">Telescope</a>

<ul><li><a href="X-ray_telescope" title="X-ray telescope">X-ray telescope</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_the_telescope" title="History of the telescope">history</a></li>

<li><a href="Lists_of_telescopes" title="Lists of telescopes">lists</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Zodiac" title="Zodiac">Zodiac</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div>

<ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"></span></span> Category</li>

<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"></span></span> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Astronomy" class="extiw external" title="commons:Category:Astronomy">Commons</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Major_branches_of_physics48" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Major_branches_of_physics48" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Major <a href="Branches_of_physics" title="Branches of physics">branches of physics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Divisions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Applied_physics" title="Applied physics">Applied</a>

<ul><li><a href="Engineering_physics" title="Engineering physics">Engineering</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Approaches</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Experimental_physics" title="Experimental physics">Experimental</a></li>

<li><a href="Theoretical_physics" title="Theoretical physics">Theoretical</a>

<ul><li><a href="Computational_physics" title="Computational physics">Computational</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Classical_physics" title="Classical physics">Classical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Classical_mechanics" title="Classical mechanics">Classical mechanics</a>

<ul><li><a href="Newton's_laws_of_motion" title="Newton's laws of motion">Newtonian</a></li>

<li><a href="Analytical_mechanics" title="Analytical mechanics">Analytical</a></li>

<li><a href="Celestial_mechanics" title="Celestial mechanics">Celestial</a></li>

<li><a href="Continuum_mechanics" title="Continuum mechanics">Continuum</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Acoustics" title="Acoustics">Acoustics</a></li>

<li><a href="Classical_electromagnetism" title="Classical electromagnetism">Classical electromagnetism</a></li>

<li><a href="Classical_optics" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical optics">Classical optics</a>

<li><a href="Thermodynamics" title="Thermodynamics">Thermodynamics</a>

<ul><li><a href="Statistical_mechanics" title="Statistical mechanics">Statistical</a></li>

<li><a href="Non-equilibrium_thermodynamics" title="Non-equilibrium thermodynamics">Non-equilibrium</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Modern_physics" title="Modern physics">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Relativistic_mechanics" title="Relativistic mechanics">Relativistic mechanics</a>

<ul><li><a href="Special_relativity" title="Special relativity">Special</a></li>

<li><a href="General_relativity" title="General relativity">General</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Nuclear_physics" title="Nuclear physics">Nuclear physics</a></li>

<li><a href="Particle_physics" title="Particle physics">Particle physics</a></li>

<li><a href="Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">Quantum mechanics</a></li>

<li><a href="Atomic%2C_molecular%2C_and_optical_physics" title="Atomic, molecular, and optical physics">Atomic, molecular, and optical physics</a>

<ul><li><a href="Atomic_physics" title="Atomic physics">Atomic</a></li>

<li><a href="Molecular_physics" title="Molecular physics">Molecular</a></li>

<li><a href="Optics#Modern_optics" title="Optics">Modern optics</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Condensed_matter_physics" title="Condensed matter physics">Condensed matter physics</a>

<ul><li><a href="Solid-state_physics" title="Solid-state physics">Solid-state physics</a></li>

<li><a href="Crystallography" title="Crystallography">Crystallography</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Interdisciplinary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Astrophysics" title="Astrophysics">Astrophysics</a></li>

<li><a href="Atmospheric_physics" title="Atmospheric physics">Atmospheric physics</a></li>

<li><a href="Biophysics" title="Biophysics">Biophysics</a></li>

<li><a href="Chemical_physics" title="Chemical physics">Chemical physics</a></li>

<li><a href="Geophysics" title="Geophysics">Geophysics</a></li>

<li><a href="Materials_science" title="Materials science">Materials science</a></li>

<li><a href="Mathematical_physics" title="Mathematical physics">Mathematical physics</a></li>

<li><a href="Medical_physics" title="Medical physics">Medical physics</a></li>

<li><a href="Physical_oceanography" title="Physical oceanography">Ocean physics</a></li>

<li><a href="Quantum_information_science" title="Quantum information science">Quantum information science</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="History_of_physics" title="History of physics">History of physics</a></li>

<li><a href="Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Nobel Prize in Physics">Nobel Prize in Physics</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_of_physics" title="Philosophy of physics">Philosophy of physics</a></li>

<li><a href="Physics_education" title="Physics education">Physics education</a>

<ul><li><a href="Physics_education_research" title="Physics education research">research</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Timeline_of_fundamental_physics_discoveries" title="Timeline of fundamental physics discoveries">Timeline of physics discoveries</a></li></ul>

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This article is issued from <a class="external text" title="Last edited on 2024-07-02" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/?title=Astroparticle_physics&oldid=1232210944">Wikipedia</a>. The text is available under <a class="external text" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted. Additional terms may apply for the media files.

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